International relations can be defined as the study of the interaction of states with others states together with non-governmental organizations in certain areas, including security, economics, and politics. It attempts to predict the future and explain the past behavior of states. Professionals in international relations work in governments and non-profits to develop as well as apprehend cooperative exchanges between countries that profit quality of life, environment, security, and commerce. Its practice and study combine various fields of political science, economics, and history to analyze issues such as global poverty, political environment, security, globalization, economics, environment, human rights, and global ethics. These express the level of complexity of international relations or affairs. Internal affairs have a diverse purpose in a society where it tends to comprehend power type and exercise in the international system, the background of war and peace maintenance, and the varying character of actors of a nation and non-state that contribute to global decision making.
The study of international affairs in the current world is significant for several reasons, including advocating for successful trade policies among states, promoting travel associated with tourism, business, and immigration, and giving people chances to develop their lives. It also helps advance the culture of humans via the establishment of policy and diplomacy as well as cultural exchanges. Additionally, international relations allow countries to collaborate with each other, share information and combine resources to deal with international problems such as terrorism and pandemic, which transcend any region or state. Moreover, international affairs comprise theoretical strategies that seek to explain the working of the international system. Realism and liberalism are the two main theories of international relations. Realism is centered on the view that states work to expand their power with reference to other states. On the other hand, liberalism acknowledges that nations share a range of ties making it challenging to identify independent national interests. This paper will focus on the comparison and contrast between realism and liberalism.
Realism
Realism is a school of thought that centers on the conflictual and competitive part of international relations. Realism theory states that power is the only certainty worldwide. As a result, a mighty nation, through the power of the military, which is the most significant form of power, will always survive weaker rivals. Since nations are always trying to obtain the power to ensure that they can protect themselves, self-preservation becomes the most important theme in realism. It states further that self-preservation should be the most important interest of any nation and that power gain should always be an economic, social, and political necessity (Duguri et al., 2021). Moreover, realism encourages nation-states to utilize military force in the international system. The theory acknowledges that international law and organizations lack force and power and that their existence is exclusively dependent on being appreciated and recognized by select nations.
The roots of realism are mostly said to originate from some of the earliest historical writings of humankind, specifically Thucydides’s Peloponnesian War history, which ranged between 404 and 431 BCE. Thucydides’s writing was not realist in nature since, until the 20th century, the theory of international relations was not in the identified form (Dunne et al., 2013). However, theorists identified numerous similarities in the modern and ancient world behaviors and patterns when reflecting on a contemporary perspective. The theorists then used his writings and those of others, such as Hobbes and Machiavelli, importance to the view that a timeless theory existed known as realism which spans all human history records.
Realism draws a number of main assumptions, one of which is that the nation is the key actor in internal affairs. Other entities, including organizations and people, but power is restricted. Secondly, the state is a single actor because national interests drive or steer the state to act and declare in a unitary voice, particularly in war times. Thirdly, decision-makers are considered rational or logical actors since taking action results in the quest for the national interest (Dunne et al., 2013). Therefore, making choices that would weaken a state cannot be rational. Lastly, nations work in anarchy where no one has authority internationally. This means that there is no particular individual to rely on, which is different from the case within states where they contain courts, militaries, and police officers that help out or respond when an emergency emerges. Therefore, there are no evident expectations for anything or an individual to react to an issue internationally since there lacks a lack of hierarchy, making nations solely depend on themselves.
Realism has six important principles that form the base for political realism. First, states cannot use inclusive and general principles in their actions as they vary in temporal and spatial conditions. Second, national interests make up the primary guide in political realism. This is to mean that state interests are identified depending on different national capabilities and elements instead of bad or good personal attributes for political leaders (Duguri et al., 2021). Third, interest is constant and at the center of transnational politics and is not influenced by space or time conditions. Fourth, political realism base on the perception that international affairs are considered to be an autonomous realm. This means that it does not rely on other fields like ethics, law, and economics. Fifth, politics is managed by factual laws that result from the nature of human beings that aid states in accomplishing their objectives (Dunne et al., 2013). Lastly, realism holds that universal and absolute principles and values are not present in the international relations field. As a result, the theory refrains from generalizing and applying desires and standards that an individual believes to those of others.
The theory emphasizes the view that human beings have repetitive behavior patterns influenced by their nature. As a result, people are egocentric and long for power. Moreover, realists hold the perception that people’s desire for power, lack of capability to trust others, and selfishness result in expectable outcomes. Therefore, people’s behaviors mirror that of the state since they are organized into states. Following this idea, Niccolo Machiavelli based his writings on how basic human behaviors impacted state security. Moreover, leaders in his time were mostly men influencing the realists’ reasoning of politics. Machiavelli emphasized that the main concern of a leader is to enhance national security in The Prince (1562). This means that leaders need to be alert and efficiently manage internal and external threats to their rule (Duguri et al., 2021). Furthermore, Machiavelli’s view indicates that leaders should follow responsibility ethics instead of morality that leads a regular citizen. Additionally, leaders would need to have power and deception that will enable them to carry out foreign policy.
In internal relations, the representation of realism is illustrated in six different aspects. To begin with, realism is depicted by politics controlled by laws whose origins were based on human nature. Second, the concept of interest described with reference to power works as the primary incentive that allows political realism to strive toward the international landscape. Third, this approach comprehends power and interest in international society as a variable concept. Moreover, it presumes that it is impossible to impose universal moral principles on the actions of states (Duguri et al., 2021). Additionally, realism does not recognize the moral aspirations of an individualized state containing morals that head the international community. Lastly, realism follows a unitary political sphere view.
The realism theory has constraints that help reduce the likelihood of war within nations, including power ratio, alliances, and distance and size. Power ratio is a quotient of the capability index of a stronger nation to that of the weaker one. In power ratio, a state can reduce the possibility of war military strength deterrence. Following the same reasoning, conflict is best avoided by a power superiority for one side. This is because war tends to always arise when there is a power imbalance, and the stronger side will force the weaker one to withdraw from defending itself because it understands it will lose (Duguri et al., 2021). Moreover, having knowledge of a nation’s material capabilities, military, demographic and economic aids in assessing the impact of power on the possibility of war or conflict. Collectively, all these factors use a combination of elements that can be used instantly for military reasons, including expenditures as well as soldiers and longer-term military potential that is essential within an extended conflict. As a result, it has been a reasonable power measure for a century long.
Second, alliances result from states sharing significant security and strategic interests. Due to this, the countries risk weakening their common defense against a nation they all regard as an enemy if they have military conflicts among themselves. Lastly, distance and size make it costly and challenging to enforce the power of the military (Duguri et al., 2021). This is because neighboring countries can readily go to war and are more expected to compete for territory interests, common ethnic groups, and natural resources, which may instigate war. Moreover, the great power holders usually have a strong military that allows them to use or apply power at a distance and have extensive interests to strive for.
Many realism critics mostly center on the balance of power, one of its main approaches in world relations management. It defines a condition where nations constantly make decisions that enhance their abilities as they weaken those of others. This results in a kind of balance since no country or nation is allowed to gain extreme power in the international system. As a result, a nation will start a war as other states will develop a treaty to try and overpower it and regain balance if it continues to grow its power (Doeser & Frantzen, 2020). Moreover, realism holds that flexible alliances are important in ensuring state survival.
The treaties are determined more by the desire to obtain coalitions of mutual alliances that can help restore balance and less by their cultural or political similarities. An excellent example is when the United States of America made an alliance with the Soviet Union during World War II because they perceived Germany as their common threat and decided to stabilize it. For this reason, no nation has succeeded in obtaining international power and controlling the world under its rule. As a result, power balance can be obtained in the international society using two primary methods (Duguri et al., 2021). First, states can develop their resources and capabilities by taking advantage of their economic growth, resulting in internal balancing. The second method entails nations acquiring alliances with powerful countries, which then leads to external balancing.
Liberalism
Liberalism is a set of social, economic, and political theories that focus on equality, the rule of law, individual liberty, democratic and limited government, and economic freedom. According to liberalism, equality entails individuals receiving equal treatment before the law irrespective of sex, social status, or race. Economic freedom deals with providing private property rights and free-market support. The rule of law is an argument that law should be executed equally to everyone and should not be oppressive. Liberty can be defined as freedom, unnecessary or unfair restraints on the beliefs, thoughts, and actions of an individual, including the freedom of religion, speech, association, and press that are enacted by the state (Duguri et al., 2021). Moreover, liberty is a political notion controlled or restricted by the harm principle, which affirms that an individual will have liberty on the condition that they do not hurt or injure someone. Finally, a democratic government is constrained through representatives voted for by citizens or directly by citizens. On the other hand, a limited government is one that is limited or controlled by the law.
The origins of liberalism can be followed back to John Locke. John Lock was a political theorist and an English philosopher in the 17th century. John’s Two Treatises of Government is believed to be the first account of liberalism. He argued that legitimate political power could only be obtained from the approval of the governed. According to John, the role of the government is to ensure that the liberty, lives, and property of citizens remain protected. Locke advocated for limited government and the notion of an independent executive branch that is the rule of law and legislation. The commitment of liberalism theory to capitalism and free markets can be traced to Adam Smith in the 18th century (Duguri et al., 2021). Adam Smith was a Scottish moral philosopher known for The Wealth of Nations work. He argued that division of labor and decentralized decision-makers working to fulfill their own needs is the best way to acquire prosperity and wealth. This is to mean that the best way to generate prosperity for everyone is by having competitive free markets. The industrial revolution created tension among liberals in the 19th century, which resulted in hardships and severe poverty for a majority of people but great wealth for others.
There are three main areas of liberalism theory, including economics, politics, and culture. To begin with, economic liberalism expresses competition and market and capitalist trade freedom. This area is organized in individual lines meaning that the maximum number of economic decisions are made by households or individuals instead of joint organizations or institutions. In other words, economic liberalism involves maintaining economic freedom and promoting private and capitalist property privacy, and encouraging a competitive and free market. Additionally, the theory allows a person to participate in business activities with no political influence and struggle for individual profit or success to the maximum. The theory advocates for people to refuse the domination of the state. Lastly, cultural liberalism encourages social and personal freedoms, including freedom of expression and thought, moral flexibility, expansion of free opportunities as well as religious freedom (Duguri et al., 2021). For instance, morality describes liberalism as an immoral, patient, and tolerant principle. In cultural liberalism, most actions and behaviors possess no ruling except immorality. Moreover, liberalism believes in moral relativity rather than unitary, unchangeable, absolute, and stable rules. Lastly, liberalism
The theory acknowledges that nation-states share a wide range of relations, making it tough to determine independent national concerns. As a result, the theory encompasses the drop in military power use. The theory regarded its first strong post World War II rise in the 1970s as increasing international trade, communications technology, and globalization. The liberal strategies, also known as complex independence theories, argue that the effects of the power of the military exceed the benefits or profits and that international collaboration is for every state’s benefit (Dunne et al., 2013). Moreover, it argues that exerting economic power instead of the power of the military is more efficient.
Liberalism theory is based on the view that the current global system has the capability to foster a peaceful world order. It puts weight on international cooperation to advance the interests of every nation instead of depending on a direct power like the power of the military. Liberalist considers the negative effects of force, including citizen casualties and economic losses, to outweigh its possible benefits. As a result, liberal politicians usually opt to utilize social and economic tactics to realize their national goals, like acquiring the treaty of a neighboring nation to aid in securing a border (Dunne et al., 2013). Using economic power, including bilateral trade treaties, can work more efficiently in developing political interests compared to aggressive force in the current globalized society.
Liberalism uses three influences that allow peaceful relations among nations which include democracy, international organizations, and international trade. Democracies work on the view that disputes can be solved calmly through compromise and negotiation without using violence. Moreover, democratic citizens and their leaders acknowledge other democracies as functioning under similar principles within their internal relations, thereby extending to them the diplomatic dispute resolution principle. As a result, negotiation and cooperation between democratic nations are expected, and conflict or dispute risk is illegitimate and unnecessary. Furthermore, democratic leaders that fight violence are considered accountable for the benefits and costs of war through democratic institutions (Dunne et al., 2013). Democratic leaders who instigate violence risk being removed from office, particularly when the war is costly or long or if they lose. Due to this reason, these leaders will be hesitant to start wars, especially if they will probably lose.
Democratic peace prevents states from going to war with other democracies. These states are differentiated by internal power influences and consider each other as unthreatening and legitimate. Following this, compared to non-democracies, these countries contain greater capability for cooperation with one another (Dunne et al., 2013). Due to this, democratic nations have less chances of rivaling and competing. However, peace can be an outcome of economics, power culture, and alliances in democracy.
Internal organizations (IGOs) consist of universal organizations such as the International Monetary Fund (IMF, or United Nations (UN) and ones that are focused on specific regions or countries. These organizations can be multi-purpose or multi-functional agencies engaged in particular goals, including environmental concerns, health, human rights, enhancing international investment and commerce, or military security. They aid in reducing the selfish interests of states by encouraging their governments to focus more on significant benefits that can be long-term due to continuous cooperation instead of concentrating on immediate and short-term desired outcomes (Bessner & Guilhot, 2015). They foster peace in a number of ways, such as reducing uncertainty by offering information, negotiating among conflicting nations, coercing rule-breakers, shaping or modeling norms, creating accounts of common identification, and expanding the material interest of members to be long term and inclusive. Liberals understand that the United Nations cannot pressure countries to obey, but they consider it significant. This is due to the fact that transnational institutions provide a means for various states to collaborate for the purpose of gaining the other’s trust. Following this, international organizations can limit decision-makers by fostering peaceful relations.
International trade also helps maintain peaceful relations by providing commercial interaction, which works as a means of communication where preferences and information concerning needs and interests are exchanged over a wide range of issues. Economic trade generates incentives that help maintain peace among the involved nations. Due to this, empathy, mutual identity, and understanding can be obtained across all nations. Moreover, trade relies on the anticipation of peace with the trading parties (Duguri et al., 2021). Furthermore, disputes threaten access to capital, imports as well as markets, especially on costs. Additionally, countries will have a strong political base with an interest in maintaining peaceful relations among them if they have a large contribution of trade to their national economies.
The distribution of capitalism and free trade by powerful liberal states develops a free market-based transnational economic system which provides mutual benefits. Countries with broad trade relations mostly prefer to maintain peace with other countries to maximize their profits without any conflict. Therefore this can aid in reducing conflicts since there is increased trade between the countries and decreases the possibilities of war as war cancels the trade profits (Duguri et al., 2021). Furthermore, increasing trade and economic interdependence results in the generation of a series of international institutions, rules, and norms created to facilitate, make and foster cooperation among states.
Differences and Similarities
Realism and liberalism theories have several differences where their perceptions tend to vary. First, realism depicts pessimism and negativism in the affairs between nations in the international system, while liberalism portrays positivism in relations and state goals in the international system. This is to mean that realism displays competition in the affairs between the countries. Moreover, every action in the association between countries is controlled by the desire to enhance and seek the interests of a particular nation. This is because states act to protect their interests with no regard to the interests of other states. In contrast, liberalism shows a change in the international system whose objective is to foster interaction between countries in different development aspects (Jahn, 2013). Therefore, the theory displays positivism in international and domestic relations. It concentrates on the change in legislation and policies to enhance the development of nations. Liberalism involves seeking a way to implement openness and freedom in nations’ engagement in economic, social, and political affairs.
Another difference is that realism holds the view that human beings are inherently cruel and violent, while liberalism takes them to be logical and harmonious. Liberalism considers people to respect the basic rights of others and be reasonable despite being self-interested (Nejati, 2021). As a result, human beings have a positive perception of the universe. In liberalism, international peace fails because of a lack of a sufficient number of international institutions. This is because mutual collaboration would be easier if international institutions participated in generating peaceful country relations by enhancing disarmament and peaceful change efficiently.
Human nature is based on the wrongs and rights of the social world. The realism view holds that all countries seek to achieve their interests, which are security, self-protection, and resource gain, irrespective of the concerns of others (Dunne et al., 2013). Moreover, these states want to secure adequate power that will allow them to protect and consider themselves above other countries. Furthermore, realism portrays that transnational cooperation is not likely because of anarchy constraints and that it will only take place if two states encounter a common rival or threat. Liberalism, on the other hand, emphasizes harmonious coexistence by appreciating the concerns of others, like the preservation of the universe via collaboration on common interest issues, including pandemics and terrorism (Nejati, 2021). Additionally, this can be possible if organizations aim to lower the costs of the transaction. Such issues are international since they threaten the entire world and hence require all countries to come together and solve the problems.
Liberalism accounts for state economies and morals being used to measure their respective power, while realism believes it is measured using conflict, cruelty, aggression, and military force. Moreover, realists take the international system to be anarchical, which will require a realistic view of the influence governing it. Following this, liberalism holds that power should be distributed to increase numbers, whereas realism believes in power concentration determining who is the strongest. Liberalism perceives it to be increased in coming together to eliminate a threat. States can increase it through collaboration and negotiations instead of starting wars with other countries (Jahn, 2013). On the other hand, realism works on one state conquering other states to add to their supremacy, eventually making them dominant compared to their rivals (Doeser & Frantzen, 2020). This indicates dominance over other countries with a wide range of interests. According to liberalism, gaining cooperation among nations is challenging because of the fear of relative gains resulting from the uneven distribution of resources across states. The capabilities of separate countries to optimize their power to ensure that they achieve the desired interests. Therefore this accounts for their varied views in their understanding of the practical international system.
Furthermore, liberalism indicates that autonomous individuals make up the political world, whereas realism portrays a nation as autonomous and the main actor within the transnational system. Liberalism holds that both individuals and the state can work as principle actors. In liberalism, however, a person is significant, and their opinion should always be appreciated (Jahn, 2013). Conversely, the realistic view is that the voice of citizens can always be silenced (Doeser & Frantzen, 2020). For example, in maintaining state security, minorities against the country can be oppressed and persecuted in relation to realism. On the contrary, negotiations will be considered to remedy the concerns of the minority without jeopardizing the security of the country in liberalism.
Liberalism and realism also hold some similarities in their views toward internal affairs. First, both theories recognize that the universe is dangerous with no chief government that can help in governing nations. Due to this, numerous states can exploit this opportunity to overrule the weaker states using their power of military. Therefore, countries expect their military to protect them and can use their acquired alliances to defend themselves from the larger powers. Second, the two theories agree that when states form alliances, they are able to defend and uphold justice which enables them to access security for their nations (Duguri et al., 2021). Moreover, realists remain committed to international organizations since they are able to receive stability from other countries while offering the same.
Importance of Realism and Liberalism to Policy Makers
Knowledge of realism and liberalism theories is very important to policymakers in various countries since states’ decision-makers take varying actions to ensure that their interests are satisfied despite having needs perceived as similar. Some organizations within a country can study the social-psychological and psychological reasoning following foreign policymakers’ actions, whereas others can concentrate their international studies on organizational developments that promote state goals and objectives (Galal, 2020). In relation to realism, states embrace particular foreign policies considering their domestic factors, political institutions, and international distribution of power. Policymakers in the United Arabs Emirates can use this information from these theories in establishing policies that can help satisfy their interests.
Policymakers learn from the realism theory that the world will always have a possibility of encountering armed conflicts, aggression, and ideological rifts. Therefore the policymakers in United Arabs Emirates should implement policies that will be able to protect their countries should they encounter any of these issues (Nejati, 2021). The theory helps them understand international policies in doing whatever is necessary, such as strengthening the power of the military to ensure that they survive or defeat their rivals. Moreover, the policymakers learn that a country can only gain power depending on how big the state army is or the nuclear power that they possess. As a result, they are able to understand that international affairs entail the survival of the strongest and power competition. On the other hand, since violent disputes and conflicts ruin states’ development and the lives of their citizens, liberalism provides the knowledge that cooperation, alliances, and negotiation can be used to solve problems that nations can face.
The theory display that having international interdependence between countries like security, economic exchanges, and security aid in diminishing the likelihood of conflict and replaces the power of the military in enhancing peaceful relations. According to Dogan-Akkas (2020), the United Arabs Emirates changed its policy regarding Yemen from bandwagoning to buck-passing during their civil war due to the prioritization of national interest. Bandwagoning is following the foreign policy decisions of a powerful rival to protect the particular state against possible threats. The UAE used this policy under the rule of Sheikh Zayed due to its proximity to Saudi Arabia, which is the dominant power in the region and has ties with the United States of America that provides external security (Miller & Verhoeven, 2019). This policy allows a small nation to maneuver without being vulnerable to threats from its rivals. Additionally, it allows states to solidify their roles and ties before reaching a level that can easily declare its discrepancies with a rival country.
The realist approach provides policymakers with an evaluation of policy preferences or choices under the Buck-passing realistic framework and an opportunity to communicate with foreign policymaking regarding domestic calculations. Additionally, policymakers get to understand the significance of economic wealth in the dominance quest, which is an important factor in the role of the United Arabs Emirates in Yemen (Almezaini & Rickli, 2017). On the other hand, buck-passing involves a state using a greater power to defend itself or giving one’s responsibilities to another state. This is where countries that are likely to face political pressure or dilemmas choose to align with powerful states to minimize or control the likelihood of possible attacks. During the Yemen war, the United Arab Emirates aimed to pursue influence under Saudi Arabia’s hegemony and not hold dominance in the Middle East. The buck-passing policy in UAE involved domestic and economic elements. This shows how states can acquire alignment with others countries that help them satisfy their interests should a need arise, which helps policymakers see the importance of having alliances that aid in executing the nation’s actions.
Policymakers also learn that having morals will not help protect the United Arab Emirates from their international rivals from the realism theory. As a result, they will need to use violence and deceit to advance their state interests over other countries in international realism. However, liberalism provides knowledge that war is not always the solution as it is more costly than beneficial, with citizens being affected the most (Berni, 2020). Therefore, realism emphasizes on keeping peace among relations and working together in unison to eliminate threats that they can encounter.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the paper has compared and contrasted realism and liberalism theories of international relations. Realism is based on gaining power that helps countries defend themselves from rivaling states. The theory emphasizes that human beings have repetitive behavior influenced by their nature. This makes people consistently selfish and tends to long for power. Moreover, states try conquering others to add to their power. The theory has three important constraints that help reduce the likelihood of war within nations, including power ratio, alliances, and distance and size. Realism mostly displays negativism and pessimism in the relations between states in the international realm. Liberalism, on the other hand, is based on states obtaining economic freedom instead of declaring war on other countries. It works under the cooperation of states in sharing various relations that prevent the use of military power. It focuses on equality, the rule of law, individual liberty, democratic and limited government, alongside economic freedom. It has three main areas that are politics, economics, and culture. Additionally, the theory uses alliances, democracy, international organizations, and international trade to obtain power and prevent the use of military power. It advocates for peaceful relations among states as the costs of war outweigh economic development benefits. Furthermore, both theories acknowledge that the world is dangerous and has no single domineering power to control the rest of the states, making other states attempt to gain over themselves and rule over the other. Lastly, realism and liberalism provide important guides for policymakers that ensure the survival of their countries.
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