Introduction
Canadian society places great trust in its police forces, responsible for upholding the law, safeguarding its citizens, and maintaining social stability. In Canada, police officers perform an ever-expanding range of duties, including law enforcement, crisis response, and crime prevention (Wortley et al., 2021). On several occasions, the police have used excessive force on citizens while conducting an arrest.
The use of force is a regrettable but essential aspect of state administration. Without the power to properly employ force, the state would devolve into lawlessness. Using the police force against minority communities in Canada has generated controversy within North America. The Canadian police institution is confronted with systemic racism and the use of force against racial minorities, resulting in diminished trust in various police departments.
Systemic Racism
The idea of systemic racism is well-established and has roots in the colonial past. It is also pervasive in Canadian institutional practices, organizational culture, and laws. According to Stelkia (2020), there is a common misconception among many people that systemic racism is caused by only a few individuals who behave and think in a racist manner. This is untrue because even imperfectly excellent individuals may make mistakes that enable racism to exist and flourish in groups. Individuals might actively or passively allow institutions to establish and maintain rules and procedures that favor specific populations and disadvantage others, which have been known to be the cause of systemic racism.
Possible Causes of Police Use of Force
Past studies indicate that there may be several reasons why police use lethal force against civilians. The first contends that law enforcement agencies should use less force to broaden diversity within a police agency. According to a second theoretical explanation, racial stratification inequalities within communities impact police killings (Wortley et al., 2021). Lastly, some academics have suggested that unfavorable structural factors, such as extreme poverty, might affect police behavior, resulting in a higher dependence on force.
Following legalistic justifications, the amount of police brutality in a given location is said to be proportional to the amount of violent crime found there. The use of deadly force by police is most likely to occur in places where officers confront and must react to aggressive populations (Radebe, 2021). Most people who were murdered by police had either used or threatened to use a weapon, according to other investigations on the circumstances surrounding police use of force. Most past macro research in the United States has revealed that the rate of police killings is strongly correlated with the amount of violence in the neighborhood (Stelkia, 2020). Based on the information above, there is an anticipated increase in police killings in Canadian communities with high murder rates.
Analysis of the Situation
Impact of Police Use of Force on Public Trust
Police use of force, mainly when seen as excessive or unwarranted, can erode connections with the general public and societal cohesiveness. The use of lethal force frequently causes tensions between regular citizens and the police to flare up because Western society’s citizens are becoming less and less willing to support excessive restraint as a social form of control and because the survivors of excessive force are predominantly minorities (Radebe, 2021). Such incidents frequently result in complaints from the public about police prejudice.
Maintaining social order is a common goal shared by all police organizations, and it is evident that violence is one way to achieve this goal. In major cities, police agencies are nearly often the first government entity to deal with security and stability threats. Being the cutting edge of the state’s knife, the police in modern society are therefore forced to act (Stelkia, 2020). As police personnel are the most skilled and covert experts in the daily use of coercion needed to maintain domestic order, competent law enforcement organizations are essential in even the most advanced nations.
Factors Influencing Lethal Force in Law Enforcement
Law enforcement officials are more prone to resort to lethal force when confronted by marginalized community members or individuals threatening the status quo. If law enforcement officers base their actions on the perception of a threat posed by minorities, they are more likely to use fatal force in areas with stable racial stratification (Andersen et al., 2021). Some analyses of the variance in police killings take macro-level variables into account instead of micro-level ones.
Due to the considerable variation in police shootings amongst departments, some research on law enforcement deadly force has examined whether or not the internal dynamics of municipal law enforcement or structural factors in the towns they patrol impact the use of fatal force (Ng & Lam, 2020). Even after adjusting for the prevalence of other structural variables and violent crime, Black Americans continue to have the highest rate of police killings.
Research Focus on Police Violence and Demographics
Studies on police violence have traditionally concentrated on variances among people, particular contexts, departmental variations, and variations in the communities where different police organizations are entrenched (Ng & Lam, 2020). Police violence is examined chiefly at the individual level, considering factors such as an officer’s age, ethnicity, gender, and education degree. Most claim these characteristics are irrelevant once contextual or outside influences are constant (Andersen et al., 2021).
Situational-level studies in the US consider the circumstances of police-citizen interactions and often conclude that law enforcement is more inclined to use force when confronted by hostile individuals and racial minorities (Sytsma et al., 2021). Similar findings by Canadian academics have demonstrated that those who identify as part of a visible minority group are much more susceptible to being stopped, interrogated, and jailed than people who do not (Ng & Lam, 2020). Research on policing in Canada has shown that ethnic minorities are more frequently the target of deadly police action.
Disproportionate Use of Force Against Racialized Groups
The chances of a person of color being subjected to the use of force in Toronto is 1.6 to 1.2 times higher than their white counterparts. New research reveals that black individuals are susceptible to a law enforcement officer pointing a gun at them even when unarmed (Honderich, 2022). Not only were individuals of color disproportionately represented in enforcement actions like arrests or the issuance of tickets for significant provincial violations, but the degree of force police employed against them inclined to be more extreme. Black individuals accounted for 39 percent of those against whom Toronto police used force in 2020, according to the analysis (Gillis, 2022). In the same year, Black citizens were 2.2 times more likely to be exposed to enforcement measures, as just 24 percent of the persons Toronto police engaged with were Black.
Analysis of Force Incidents and Racial Disparities
Examining the 371 instances in which cops pointed pistols or rifles at persons, the research determined that Black individuals were two to three times more inclined than white individuals to have firearms “directed where no firearms were recognized” on their person. In 2020, just 22 of the 149 use-of-force events were when firearms were not seen to be pointed at a suspect involved in aiming a gun at the suspect, according to the officials (Honderich, 2022). Owing to the short sample size, only White and Black individuals had data accessible.
In contrast, white persons were 1.4 times more prone to being subjected to less-than-lethal force, including a teaser, baton, or physical contact, when suspected of possessing firearms (Gillis, 2022). Black inhabitants are 1.5 times more likely than white citizens to have a police firearm aimed toward them during an enforcement operation. At the same time, East/Southeast Asians and South Asians were 1.6 and two times more likely, respectively.
Disparities in Use of Force Among Other Racialized Groups
Statistics involving the use of force were also disproportionately high for other racialized groups, as the report demonstrated. Use of force events was 1.5 times as likely to affect Latinos than they were to involve persons of Middle Eastern or Southeast Asian descent (Honderich, 2022). While somewhat underrepresented in the use of force data, Indigenous individuals were disproportionately represented in regulatory action by a ratio of 1.5.
Notwithstanding this, Indigenous individuals were one to four times more likely to be subjected to force in response to requests for a person in distress than their population percentage would indicate (Cotter, 2022). Chief James Ramer of Toronto’s police force declared that the numbers backed up what people of color have been saying for decades: that the force hasn’t done enough to address systemic racism.
Confidence in the Police
Trust in Law Enforcement Among Canadians
As of early 2019, nine of ten province-dwelling Canadians had complete or partial trust in law enforcement. Almost 40% of respondents said they had much faith in law enforcement, and 49% said they had some confidence in the police (Cotter, 2022). Just 7% of respondents indicated they had complete faith in law enforcement (Ibrahim, 2020). Just 2% of Canadians said they have complete confidence in law enforcement. Compared to those living in census agglomerations or rural regions, 44% and 45% fewer Canadians reported great trust in the police (Cotter, 2022).
Variation in Trust Across Canadian Cities
Despite widespread belief in law enforcement, the percentage of residents in different major Canadian cities who said they had much faith in the police varied widely (Ibrahim, 2020). Québec (49%), Moncton (53%), Trois-Rivières (56%), and Regina (50%), for instance, have a higher percentage of respondents who say they have a lot of faith in law enforcement than either Toronto (37%) or Winnipeg (31%) ((Cotter, 2022; Ibrahim, 2020).
Trust in Police Among Indigenous and Visible Minority Groups
In urban areas, Indigenous individuals (33%) reported having greater trust in the police compared to those in rural areas (25%). However, despite being less likely to have had contact with police the preceding year, 16% of visible minorities who had recently interacted with the police reported negative experiences (Ibrahim, 2020).
People of color are likelier to report lower trust in the police than white people, with one-third of visible minorities reporting distrust compared to only 8% of other minority groups. The lack of confidence among this segment of the population can be attributed to perceptions and experiences of institutional racism in policing and incidents of racial discrimination by law enforcement officers.
Immigrant Perspectives on Law Enforcement Performance
Immigrants were less likely to feel that law enforcement agencies did an excellent job than native-born citizens. Long-term immigrants to Canada who had been there for more than ten years tended to be less enthusiastic about the country than native-born Canadians (Cotter, 2022). These long-term residents of Canada were less likely than native-born citizens to rate the performance of the police as excellent on five of the six parameters.
Comparative Views of Recent Immigrants and Native-Born Citizens
Still, they were on the same page with native-born citizens in assessing the department’s responsiveness to emergency calls. Nonetheless, recent immigrants were more likely to have good views of police performance than native-born citizens (Cotter, 2022). According to recent research, immigrants were more likely than non-immigrants to hold favorable opinions about law enforcement officers, with 47% and 51%, respectively, believing that officers do an excellent job at responding quickly to calls for service and protecting the safety of the community.
Laws on Police Use of Force
As per the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, every individual in Canada is entitled to equal treatment before the law and should receive the same protection and benefits of the law without discrimination. The Charter guarantees equal protection under the law to every citizen regardless of ethnic or national background, sex, color, religion, mental or physical disability, or age (Conrod, 2019). Therefore, ensuring fairness and equality for all is essential, as it is a legal requirement for establishing a just and equitable society in Canada.
Despite this legal framework, however, not all individuals in Canada receive equal treatment. Discussions on experiences of prejudice within police organizations have been ongoing nationally and globally for several years (Agrawal, 2021). In light of the growing racial and social justice movements that have emerged over time, measuring and monitoring experiences and outcomes have become increasingly important in addressing ongoing institutional injustices.
Canadian law allows a law enforcement officer to use force in certain circumstances. According to section 25(1), a law enforcement officer may use power to make a legitimate arrest as long as the police have probable and reasonable cause to believe that doing so will result in a lawful arrest and employs no more force than is reasonably required under the circumstances (Conrod, 2019).
Likewise, police officers are justified in using potentially fatal force if they have an excellent cause to think that doing so will help them defend themselves or those they protect from serious injury or death (Agrawal, 2021). According to the Criminal Code, police are guilty of a crime if they use too much force. In simple terms, police officers can be investigated, charged, and tried for an offense if they use force that doesn’t meet the legal prerequisites.
The use of force must be reasonable, proportionate, and justifiable. Yet, it is generally accepted that law enforcement officers may be compelled to intervene fast in explosive circumstances (Conrod, 2019). In light of this fact, they are not subjected to an ideal of accuracy and are not expected to quantify the exact amount of power they employ. They are legally bound to use only the minimum possible force to achieve their aim. As determined by the courts, the rationale for force under section 25(1) of the Criminal Code offers authorities considerable discretion in making split-second choices about how to react most effectively.
Recommendations
Addressing Historical and Cultural Roots of Racial Inequities
The problem is deeply rooted in history and the national culture. Racial inequities in policing and police brutality originate in slavery and are reinforced through structural exclusion, discrimination, and implicit and intentional bias. Any resolution will need many new ways for law enforcement, tribunals, community engagement, and bottom-up and top-down societal transformation.
Increasing Female Representation in Law Enforcement
Employing more female law enforcement officers is one of the overlooked methods of solving the use of force, not only for racial minorities but for the larger Canadian community. The extent to which internal departmental dynamics may affect the deployment of violent methods has been addressed in the literature on police use of force. According to research, adding racial or ethnic minorities to a workforce does not substantially reduce force use within a specific jurisdiction.
Potential Disadvantages
Nonetheless, there is some proof that having more female cops may result in less force being used by the police. Several academics have proposed that in addition to biological variations, disparities in policing tactics between women and men result from distinct socialization experiences. Women develop a distinctively feminine perspective through gendered socialization patterns, where compassion and empathy are essential values. Such claims that women advocate more altruistic conduct and are less prone to utilize aggressive behaviors than men are consistently supported by empirical research. These distinctive traits may enable women to contribute diverse abilities and capabilities to law enforcement, which might lessen the use or misuse of force.
Enhancing Equipment and Non-Lethal Options
Law enforcement agencies should be equipped with a range of weapons and ammunition to allow for nuanced use of force, with the development of such equipment being the responsibility of law enforcement and government entities. These efforts should also include the creation of non-lethal incapacitating weapons that can be used in appropriate circumstances to reduce the use of tools that can cause harm or fatalities. In addition, police officers should be provided with self-defense tools such as bulletproof vests, shields, helmets, and vehicles capable of withstanding bullets, minimizing the need for firearms.
Rigorous Evaluation of Policy and Training Changes
There has to be a rigorous study on the efficacy of any proposed changes to police force policy, training, technology, and tactics. The proposals above for change have yet to be shown to be beneficial in Canada. In contrast, these suggestions are founded on “promising” discoveries from the worldwide scientific literature. No one should expect that successful research conducted in the United States or elsewhere would be repeated in Canada.
Canada needs its independent police assessment database. It should be advocated that all big projects involving the use of force be evaluated thoroughly. Pretest–posttest–control group is the gold standard for evaluative structure. This is the only method to know that a shift in force usage trends and patterns is attributable to a specific force usage reform effort.
Promoting Culture Change and De-Escalation Training
Culture change initiatives that downplay hyper-masculine paramilitary customs are initiatives that the police should be actively working on. Numerous academics have shown that police officers who show courage and a readiness to use violence in response to rude, non-compliant citizens are frequently rewarded. For others, the conventional police ethos encourages a “stand your ground” approach to dealing with citizen confrontations.
For instance, police are trained to use force against non-compliant individuals and to issue orders using a firm tone of voice. Resistance to authority is frequently seen as indicative of imminent danger, hence a basis for deploying physical force. Regrettably, this view runs counter to the spirit of de-escalation. Police officers must learn when to back down to avoid using force and protect innocent bystanders. Police should be commended for their attempts to calm the situation down.
Conclusion
Many Canadians have lost trust in the police because of incidents involving excessive force and institutional prejudice against minorities. The preceding information and suggestions are offered in the hopes that they may help police agencies and their regulating bodies in Canada limit the use of force by officers. Many tips mentioned above face significant hurdles, such as lack of study money, methodological difficulties, and potential opposition from police departments and unions. Yet, there is the certainty that measures must be taken if the police in Canada are to gain the trust of the people and the confidence of criminals alike.
References
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Gillis, W. (2022). ‘There is systemic discrimination in our policing’: New Toronto Police Data confirms officers use more force against black people. Web.
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Wortley, S., Laniyonu, A., & Laming, E. (2020). Use of force by the Toronto Police Service. Ontario Human Rights Commission.