The United States gained its independence in 1783 but its independence would not be recognized by many nations for some time due to fear of offending the British empire. Due to its relative weakness and lack of clout on the international stage, the US was used as a pawn in the geopolitical games of the big imperialist powers of Britain and France. For example, at the onset of the French revolution in 1789, some leaders of the new republic supported the rulers of the new republic to spite the British (Zoellick, 2021). The tensions between the US and Britain were exacerbated further by the continued occupation of forts in the American Northwest by the British, the flooding of the US with British goods, and the banning of American trade with the British empire. Careful not to trigger a war or get involved in one, the ruling parties in the US declared the intention to maintain neutrality during wars, and isolate the US from European politics during peacetime, and nationalism.
The conclusion of the American Civil war and subsequent declaration of independence were some of the most significant events that occurred in the 1700s and 1800s. These events shaped the United States and laid the foundation for the kind of nation that would emerge in the future. However, despite the many future benefits of these events, leaders at the time struggled to define the foreign policy America would pursue. They could not contemplate how they could maintain a possible foreign policy and they feared any attempts to trade with Europe would eventually lead to participation in an unwanted war (Moore, 2021). The confusion was made worse by internal differences between Federalists and Jeffersonians who often took different sides in important international trade, geopolitical, and military matters. For Federalists, international commerce was imperative for a strong nation to emerge. Consequently, they advocated the building of a massive naval fleet to protect merchant ships. However, Jeffersonians favored the expansion of trade within the US and the abandonment of commercial ties with European imperial powers.
Despite initial confusion and lack of insight on how America would respond on the international stage, successive American presidents pursued a foreign policy based on three key aspects. The first aspect of early American diplomacy was neutrality. Throughout multiple European wars, America maintained its neutrality to avoid being dragged into wars it did not intend nor had the will and resources to win. For example, the late 1790s conflict pitting France and Spain against Britain saw America maintain its neutrality (Cox & Stokes, 2018). To maintain this neutrality and extricate America from European conflicts, President George Washington negotiated and signed two peace treaties with Britain and Spain. The Jay treaty between Britain and the United States allowed the US access to the UK market and formalized the withdrawal of the British army in some US territories (Cox & Stokes, 2018). At the same time, the Pinckney Treaty which was signed a year later delineated border issues between the US and Spanish Florida (Cox & Stokes, 2018). These treaties exemplified the US’s non-confrontational and neutral foreign policy in the formative years of the republic.
Early US foreign policy was also characterized by the isolation of the US from European politics. While neutrality was practiced during wars, isolation from politics was the US’s foreign policy towards Europe in peacetime. This policy was prudent because European politics would often lead to tensions that precipitated large-scale wars during peacetime (Kupchan, 2020). While departing from office, President George Washington, in his support of isolation and neutrality policies pursued by the US at the time warned that the new republic should not get involved in “entangling alliances” with imperial powers in the European continent (Kupchan, 2020).
Successive leaders after him heed his advice and maintained only necessary contact with the Europeans. To rationalize the US’s non-interference with European affairs during peacetime and in times of war, Washington argued that the interests of the US and those of European powers were not aligned. He also cautioned that a rush to new alliances would forego advantages that America enjoyed as a newly recognized independent state (Darity, 2020). On the topic of the isolation of the United States from European politics, even the most ardent critics of the US foreign policy, such as, Thomas Jefferson agreed that it was the right step (Kupchan, 2020). Thus, as a way to not get entangled with Europe, the United States intentionally avoided political alliances with European imperial powers during peacetime.
Nationalism was the third and final aspect of early US foreign policy. As a young nation with a population, wealth, and land mass significantly smaller than most of the Europeans, the US first sought to consolidate gains at home by stoking nationalist sentiments (Cox & Stokes, 2018). Buoyed by the commitment of its citizens to an American ideal and through carefully calculated actions including war, negotiations, and outright purchase of territories, the US would a few decades after declaring independence emerge. The new nation was massive, coherent, and had powerful military and internal governance structures. However, despite the benefits accorded by extreme nationalism, the US would continue to build its strength and pursue its foreign policy unchanged for decades.
Hitler’s ascendance to power and his subsequent invasion of Poland to trigger the Second World War turned American foreign policy on its head. American foreign policy characterized by extreme nationalism, isolation from European politics, and neutrality could no longer suffice and was completely abandoned following the attack on Pearl Harbor by the Japanese navy (Tjalve & Williams, 2017). By the time the conflict came to an end in 1945, the United States emerged as one of two superpowers and played the most significant part in the establishment of new security architecture, international institutions, and world order. With its newfound status as the Western countries’ leader after the Second World War, the US entanglement in Europe in the form of alliances blossomed. Thus, the Second World War usurped more than a century of US foreign policy.
The early days of US foreign policy were marked by a cautious approach to international issues characterized by non-interference, neutrality, and extreme nationalism. Because the US was significantly weaker than most imperial European powers at the time, it chose neutrality to avoid entering into a conflict for or against any European powers. Further, during peacetime, the US chose not to entangle itself with political ties with Europe. Instead, observed as European countries resolved their differences through conflict and negotiations. Finally, to rebuild itself into a military and economically strong nation, leaders in the US practiced and encouraged extreme nationalism. This foreign policy path lasted more than a Century only to be turned on its head by the assumption of power by Hitler in Germany and the subsequent conflict that followed.
References
Cox, M., & Stokes, D. (2018). Introduction: US foreign policy—past, present, and future. US Foreign Policy. Web.
Darity, W. A. (2020). Roads not taken in the early years of the Republic. From Here to Equality, 69–92. Web.
Kupchan, C. A. (2020). Isolationism: A history of America’s efforts to shield itself from the world. Oxford University Press.
Moore, M. H. (2021). Foreign policy begins at home. Rethinking American Grand Strategy, 218–237. Web.
Tjalve, V. S., & Williams, M. C. (2017). Realist exceptionalism: Philosophy, politics and foreign policy in America’s ‘second modernity.’ American Foreign Policy. Web.
Zoellick, R. B. (2021). America in the world: A history of U.S. diplomacy and foreign policy. Twelve.